Chapter 11 Palaeoproterozoic supracrustals of the Bastar Craton: Dongargarh Supergroup and Sausar Group

Sarada Prasad Mohanty
Geological Society, London, Memoirs, 43, 151-164, 2015, https://doi.org/10.1144/M43.11

Abstract

The Bastar Craton of India is composed of Archaean nuclei of tonalite–trondhjemite–granodiorite gneisses, enveloped by an older granite–greenstone belt (>3000 Ma) with banded iron formation (BIF), and an auriferous younger granite–greenstone belt with BIF. Available geological, geochemical and geochronological data indicate multiple episodes of orogeny with high-grade metamorphism at 3200–3300, 2600–2700, 2100–2200, 1900–2000, 1800–1850, 1500–1600 and 1400–1450 Ma, and continental rifting and basin development marked by emplacement of mafic dyke swarms at c. 2900 (subalkaline mafic dykes; BD-1A), 2480 (high-Mg mafic dykes; BD-1B), 2100 (Fe–tholeiite dykes; BD-2A), 1880 (Fe–tholeiites dykes; BD-2B), 1776 and 1422 Ma. Associations of extensive bimodal volcanics and riftogenic sediments are found in the Neoarchaean and Palaeoproterozoic basins of the craton. Evidence of Palaeoproterozoic (Huronian) glaciation and associated ‘cap carbonate’ followed by deposition of fine clastics with manganese ore is found in the Palaeoproterozoic Sausar Group. The lithological association of the Sausar Group is comparable to the carbonate–tillite association of the Huronian Supergroup, Snowy Pass Supergroup, Transvaal Supergroup and Turee Creek Group. The geological evolution of the Bastar Craton matches that of Western Australia and South Africa. Such similarities can be analysed to develop a unified Palaeoproterozoic assembly for these provinces.

Precambrian rocks constitute c. 70% of Peninsular India and provide geological records from the Palaeoarchaean to the end of the Neoproterozoic (Fig. 11.1). Four Archaean nuclei (Dharwar, Bastar, Singhbhum and Bundelkhand–Aravalli cratons) in Peninsular India have tonalite–trondhjemite–granodiorite (TTG) gneisses of juvenile source (>3500 Ma), orthoamphibolites as enclaves within younger granites and metasedimentary rocks. A prominent east–west-trending orogenic belt (the Satpura range, including its eastward continuing equivalent) separates the Bundelkhand–Aravalli craton (referred as the North Indian Block, NIB) from the remaining three nuclei, which constitute the South Indian Block (SIB). The Bastar Craton of the SIB constitutes a triangular protocontinental nucleus between the Singhbhum craton in the NE and the Dharwar craton on the SW (Fig. 11.1). The boundaries between this craton and the adjacent cratons are marked by linear belts of Gondwana sediments (the Mahanadi Graben and Godavari Graben, respectively). The southeastern margin of the Bastar Craton is occupied by the Eastern Ghats orogenic belt. Several Palaeoproterozoic metasedimentary belts constitute a major part of the northwestern corner of the craton and a number of Mesoproterozoic flat-lying sedimentary basins cover a significant portion of the eastern part of craton (Fig. 11.2). The relationship of the Palaeoproterozoic metasedimentary belts with the Archaean rocks of the Bastar Craton is summarized in this chapter.

Fig. 11.1.
Fig. 11.1.

Regional geological map of India. 1, Cuddapah Basin; 2, Vindhyan Basin; 3, Chhattisgarh Basin; 4, Mahanadi Graben; and 5, Godavari Graben. White box denotes location of the study area.

Fig. 11.2.
Fig. 11.2.

Generalized geological map of the Bastar Craton, central India (modified from Mohanty 2012).

Regional geology of the Bastar Craton

The Bastar Craton of central India (also referred as the Bhandara Craton) is composed of dominantly Palaeoarchaean granite gneisses, basic and acidic volcanic rocks, and associated metasedimentary rocks, forming greenstone belts of two/three different ages (Table 11.1). The oldest components of the Bastar Craton, referred to as the Sukma gneiss, comprise a granulite–orthogneiss–granite suite, charnockite, hornblende gneiss, tonalite gneiss, pyroxenite, norite, gabbro and gabbroic anorthosites. These constitute the gneissic complex exposed near Sukma (Sukma granite I) and are dominantly represented by a typical TTG suite (Karkare & Srivastava 1985). The Palaeoarchaean components have been reported from the western part of the craton (3561±11 Ma U–Pb zircon age; Ghosh 2004). The TTG suite is accompanied by a K-rich granite (Sukma granite II; 3582±4 Ma U–Pb zircon age by Rajesh et al. 2009; 3509±14 Ma U–Pb zircon age by Sarkar et al. 1993). The Archaean gneiss complex has a major east–west- to ENE–WSW-trending shear zone extending from SW of Bhandara to NE Balaghat, known as the Central Indian Shear, which divides the gneissic complex into the southern Amgaon gneiss and northern Tirodi gneiss blocks (Fig. 11.2). Several generations of gneissic rocks and migmatites in the northern block (ranging in age from c. 3200 to 1450 Ma) are placed under the common nomenclature of Tirodi gneiss. In this chapter, the older to younger components of the Tirodi gneiss are distinguished by additional roman numerals I–IV. A vast majority of samples of the Tirodi gneiss from the type area near Tirodi have geochemical signatures of A-type granites (high Zr+Nb+Y+Ce, Ga/Al, Zr/Ni, Rb/Sr and Y/Sc). These are interpreted to have their origin in a non-orogenic setting, possibly by partial melting of the lower crust and no crustal contamination (Subba Rao et al. 1999, 2000). Only a few samples of the Tirodi gneiss have geochemical signatures of volcanic-arc granites and syn-collisional granites (Subba Rao et al. 1999, 2000). The depleted mantle model age, TDM (Hf), of the juvenile source of the Tirodi gneiss I is c. 3218 Ma (range 3051–3630 Ma, Bhowmik et al. 2011). The Amgaon gneiss consists of polyphase intrusive granite gneisses, migmatites and amphibolite patches. The felsic gneisses have tonalite to adamellite composition, with two distinct geochemical signatures (Divakara Rao et al. 2000b). These have I-type character with occasional A-type signature, indicating a volcanic arc tectonic setting and origin by partial melting of the lower crust (Divakara Rao et al. 2000b; Divakara Rao 2007; Wanjari & Ahmad 2007). The Amgaon gneiss has components ranging in age from 2378 to 3396 Ma (Ahmad et al. 2009).

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Table 11.1.

The Archaean stratigraphic succession of the southern Bastar Craton

The oldest sedimentary rocks of the Bastar Craton (the Sukma Group) overlie the Archaean TTG gneisses with an unconformity at the base (Table 11.1). This unit comprises basal cross-stratified quartzites, para-amphibolites and an upper unit of banded iron formation (BIF). Marine flooding and a transgressive systems tract following a lowstands systems tract have been inferred for the Sukma Group (Mazumder et al. 2000). The Sukma Group is unconformably overlain by the Bengpal Group (Ramakrishnan 1990). The meta-basalts constituting this unit are interlayered with immature arkose to more mature quartzites (Neogi et al. 1996), quartz-wacke/lithic-wacke, metapelites and BIF (Khan & Bhattacharyya 1993). In areas of greenschist facies metamorphism, these meta-basalts have preserved igneous fabrics such as spinifex, variolitic and spherulitic textures. Three distinct varieties of mafic volcanics, subalkaline basalt, basaltic andesite and boninite (Srivastava et al. 2004), have been reported from the Bengpal Group. The siliceous high magnesian basalts of this unit have geochemical similarities to those of the Western Australian craton (Srivastava & Singh 1999). Although the geochemical data indicate an island-arc setting, regional geological observations suggest a stable continental rift environment for these units. A marine regression model (high freeboard and lowered sea-level) for the Bengal Group has been proposed (Ramakrishnan 1990; Eriksson et al. 1999).

The sedimentary rocks of the Sukma Group and Bengpal Group were involved in deformation, granulite-grade metamorphism and granitization. Amphibole-bearing granites and biotite granites (Sukma granite III) of 3018±61 Ma age intruding into these gneissic complexes and having unconformable relationship with the younger metasedimentary belts provide the age limits of the orogenic event (Amgaon/Bengpal orogeny) affecting the oldest rock units of the craton (Mohanty 2012). The younger supracrustal belts resemble the Archaean greenstone sequences and comprise mafic and felsic volcanic rocks and metasedimentary sequence containing BIFs. These greenstone belts have gold mineralization in several places and are intruded by younger granites of 2450–2650 Ma age. The greenstone belts constitute a number of sub-basins. The exact relationship of these basins to each other has not yet been resolved. The rock units of these basins are known by separate stratigraphic names (Bailadila Group, Sonakhan Group, Abujhmar Group, Nandgaon Group and Sakoli Group). The Bastar Craton was involved in an orogenic event marked by granulite facies metamorphism at the end of Archaean time (2672±54 Ma; Roy et al. 2006), followed by intrusion of alkali feldspar megacrystic granites and pink granites (Sukma granite IV; Keskal, Darbha, Sitagaon, Dongargarh and Malanjkhand granitoids).

The regional gneissosity fabric of the Bastar Craton trends NNW–SSE to north–south. Several generations of mafic dyke swarms cut across this regional fabric. The oldest swarm of dykes (BD-1A) comprises subalkaline mafic dykes with amphibolite facies metamorphism. These have low Ti (c. 1.7%), low Fe and moderate Mg (c. 6%) contents (Srivastava & Singh 2003). These swarms are emplaced into the Palaeoarchaean granite gneisses, and are truncated along the boundaries of the granites of c. 2600 Ma and the Palaeoproterozoic basins. Therefore, these are considered to be of Mesoarchaean (c. 3000 Ma) age. The second set of dykes (BD-1B) has high magnesian mafic composition and greenschist facies metamorphism. It is emplaced in 3600–2600 Ma granite gneisses, but veins of younger granites (c. 2300 Ma) cut this swarm. The BD-1A dyke swarms are displaced along the contacts of these dykes. On the basis of geochemical characters such as high silica (>52%), high Mg (>12%) and low Ti (<0.5%), these mafic dykes are classified as boninites (Srivastava & Singh 2003). These mafic dykes are considered to be Neoarchaean (c. 2450 Ma) in age. The third set of dykes (BD-2A) intrude into the Palaeoproterozoic rocks. Detailed studies of these dykes have not been carried out yet. The fourth set of dykes (BD-2B) have retained their igneous character and are not metamorphosed. These dykes are emplaced into Archaean gneisses and Proterozoic granites of c. 2300 Ma age. These have high Ti (2.3%), high Fe and low Mg (c. 4.5%) content and geochemical patterns similar to the high-Fe quartz tholeiites. These subalkaline mafic dykes have U–Pb baddeleyite age of 1883±2–1891±1 Ma (French et al. 2008). Detailed studies of some younger suites of dykes have yet to be undertaken.

The Palaeoproterozoic rocks of the Bastar Craton constitute two major linear belts in the northwestern part of the craton. The northern belt comprises dominantly metasedimentary succession of the Sausar Group and the southern belt mainly volcanosedimentary rocks (the Dongargarh Supergroup) and a metasedimentary belt comprising the Chilpi Group. Both of the belts were affected by an orogenic event (Satpura Orogeny I) and associated high-grade metamorphism, migmatization and syntectonic granite intrusions at c. 2100 and c. 1950 Ma. The Mesoproterozoic sedimentary rocks constitute a major sedimentary basin in the northern part of the craton and several smaller basins in the eastern part close to the boundary of the craton with the Eastern Ghats orogenic belt. The sedimentary belts have horizontal to subhorizontal sedimentary succession constituting the Chhattisgarh Supergroup and its equivalent units. The boundaries of these basins and the adjacent craton have several alkaline plutons and kimberlite intrusions. These magmatic rocks located close to the boundary of the Eastern Ghats indicate possibly a punctuated history of evolution of these basins and multistage evolution of the Eastern Ghats from Mesoproterozoic to Neoproterozoic time (Mohanty 2011). The spatio-temporal evolution of the Bastar Craton is gleaned from the synthesis of available geochronological data of different key units (Table 11.2). The age spectrum and relative probability of age distribution (Fig. 11.3) indicate major tectonothermal events at 2100, 2480, 2380, 1880, 1450, 3580, 1600, 850 and 3020 Ma (arranged in decreasing order of probability). On the basis of these observations the event stratigraphy of the craton has been prepared (Fig. 11.4). It is noted that major orogenic events were associated with high-grade metamorphism, migmatization and intrusion of late-tectonic granite plutons. The orogenic collapse or post-orogenic extension resulted in the development of different sedimentary basins. The Palaeoproterozoic basin evolution of the craton is analysed in detail in the next section.

Fig. 11.3.
Fig. 11.3.

Age spectrum of the Bastar Craton at 50 Ma intervals. The relative probability of age distribution (red colour) has peaks at 2100, 2480, 2380, 1880, 1450, 3580, 1600, 850 and 3020 Ma.

Fig. 11.4.
Fig. 11.4.

Proposed barcode-style event stratigraphy of the Bastar Craton. Different orogenic events marked by wavy lines were associated with metamorphism, migmatization and intrusion of granite plutons. Orogenic collapse/extension events were marked by basin development and deposition of sediments.

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Table 11.2.

Proterozoic events stratigraphy of the Bastar Craton and the adjacent supracrustal blocks

The Dongargarh Supergroup

Basin stratigraphy

The rocks of the Dongargarh Supergroup form a c. 250 km long and 50 km wide NNE–SSW-trending linear belt, known as the Kotri–Dongargarh belt. The pioneering work of Sarkar (1957, 1958) proposed a two-fold stratigraphic division for the belt: Nandgaon Group and Khairagarh Group (Table 11.3). The Nandgaon Group is composed of a basal sedimentary sequence of grits, sandstones, shales and Banded Hematite Quartzite with a minor amount of volcaniclastics (tuffs) constituting the Dargah Formation overlain by felsic and mafic volcanics. The lower felsic volcanosedimentary unit is referred to as the Bijli Formation and the upper mafic units are known as the Pitepani Formation. The lower volcanic assemblages of the Bijli Formation are characterized by high Ba, Zr, Th and Cr content, enriched light rare earth elements (LREE), depleted large ion lithophile elements (LILE) and low amounts of Sc, Y and Sr. The geochemical signatures of this unit indicate patterns similar to that of the within-plate granite and crustal melting process (Divakara Rao et al. 2000a). The upper unit, the Pitepani Formation, comprises low-Ti calc alkaline, high-magnesian andesite and high-Ti tholeiitic volcanics with concentration of Ba, K, Rb, Sr and Th, and LREE enrichment. The Nandgaon Group is intruded by two granite plutons: Dongargarh granite (in the south) and Malanjkhand granite (in the north). The Bijli Rhyolite is dated at 2503±35 Ma (Rb–Sr whole-rock age; Krishnamurthy et al. 1988, 1990). The Dongargarh granite has Rb–Sr whole-rock age of 2465±22 Ma (Krishnamurthy et al. 1988, 1990). The Malanjkhand granite has components of different ages. The older grey gneiss has U–Pb zircon age of 2490±8 Ma (Panigrahi et al. 2002). Re–Os age of 2478±9 Ma and 2477±10 Ma (Stein et al. 2004) and Rb–Sr whole-rock age of 2467±38 Ma (Panigrahi et al. 1993) provide a very tight age constraint for the Malanjkhand granite. The Khairagarh Group comprises a basal succession of rudites and wackes (Bortalao Formation), followed by basic volcanics (Sitagota, Mangikhuta and Kotima volcanics) interlayered with volcanosedimentary units (Karutola Formation and Ghogra Formation). The Bortalao Formation has low dip (c. 15°) with a polymictic conglomerate at the base and shale-rich upper horizons (Rao 1981). The conglomerate contains pebbles and cobbles of rhyolite, andesite, quartzite, granite and granite gneiss. The upper pelitic unit contains greywacke and lithicwacke interbands within shale-rich bands. Local occurrences of manganese oxide-rich lenses are reported from this unit (Rao 1981). The presence of calcitic marbles (similar to the Lohangi Formation of the Sausar Group) below the phyllites of the Bortalao Formation has been reported from the area south of Malanjkhand (Rao 1981). The pelitic facies of the Bortalao Formation grades into the shale and phyllite-rich rocks of the Chilpi Group in the north. The volcanics of the Khairagarh Basin are dated at 2120±35 Ma (Sinha et al. 1998). Although most early workers (Sarkar 1957; Tripathi et al. 1981; Krishnamurthy et al. 1990; Jain et al. 1991) considered an unconformable relationship between the Nandgaon Group and Khairagarh Group with a gap of c. 300 Ma, Sensarma & Mukhopadhyay (2003) suggested a single continuous succession without any significant time-break between the two units.

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Table 11.3.

Stratigraphic succession of the Kotri–Dongargarh belt

Tectonic environment and facies models

The Bijli Formation is characterized by ignimbrites with welded rheomorphic tuffs and is interpreted to be a plinian volcanism to fissure eruption in a continental setting (Mukhopadhyay et al. 2001). The Pitepani volcanics have the geochemical signature of within-plate basalts. Geochemical data (major, trace and REE) indicate the volcanics of the Nandgaon Group to be of alkaline affinity formed under stable crustal conditions by midcrustal anatexis (Divakara Rao et al. 2000a). On the other hand, Krishnamurthy et al. (1990) proposed an orogenic setup for the Nandgaon Group. The Dongargarh batholith has two different components: a coarse, equigranular granite and the porphyritic granodiorite. The former shows characteristics of A-type granite with sporadic development of rapakivi texture, geochemical signatures of within-plate granite. On the other hand, the latter shows I-type character and geochemical signatures of volcanic-arc to syncollision granite (Narayana et al. 2000). Geochemical discrimination indicates that the Malanjkhand granite is an I-type (Pandit & Panigrahi 2012). However, there are two schools of thought regarding the tectonic setup of this granite. While one group considers a rifting environment for the Malanjkhand granite, the other group argues in favour of a collisional setup.

The basic volcanics of the Khairagarh Group have geochemical signatures of within-plate and continental tholeiites (Shivkumar et al. 2003). On the other hand, the geochemical signatures of the volcanics of the Khairagarh Group have been interpreted to be of an island-arc setting (Asthana et al. 1996; Sinha et al. 1998). The Karutola Formation between the Sitagota Formation and the Mangikhuta Formation dominantly comprises texturally mature (well-sorted rock with well-rounded grains) quartz arenite with minor amounts of mudstones. Process-based facies analysis of this unit has led to identification of five facies: (a) inner shelf; (b) shoreface; (c) delta mouth/lower delta plain; (d) tidal flat; and (e) foreshore/backshore (Chakraborty & Sensarma 2008). The arenites of this formation contain adhesion structures, indicating aeolian contribution to shallow-marine deposition environment (Chakraborty & Sensarma 2008). The basic volcanic and volcaniclastic deposits are interpreted to be pyroclastic deposits of lahar type (volcanic mud flow) admixed with fluvial components (Sinha et al. 1998; Sensarma & Mukhopadhyay 2003). Based on the association of bimodal volcanics and extensive mature quartz arenites, a plume-related rifting environment has been proposed for the Khairagarh Group (Sensarma & Mukhopadhyay 2003; Shivkumar et al. 2003).

The Sausar Group

Precambrian metasedimentary rocks of the Sausar Group are exposed on the southern flanks of the Satpura Mountain Belt of central India (Fig. 11.1). In spite of a long history of geological research, crustal evolution of this terrain is not well understood. Isotopic data from rocks exposed in the region are meagre. The east–west regional trend of the belt (Figs 11.2 & 11.5) was developed at the time of the Precambrian Satpura orogeny.

Fig. 11.5.
Fig. 11.5.

Geological map of the central part of the Sausar belt, central India (after Narayanaswami et al. 1963). See Figure 11.1 for location.

The gneissic basement

There are two generations of gneisses: an older TTG suite and younger quartz–monzonite plutons (high-K monzogranite and syenogranite), forming the basement complex (Tirodi gneiss I) in the Mansar–Mahuli area (Fig. 11.6). A discontinuous band of schist containing flattened tabloids of quartz–sillimanite occurs along the contact of the basement rocks to the west of the National Highway passing through Mansar and Kandri mines. Mohanty (1993) considered this horizon to be a metamorphosed palaeosol.

Fig. 11.6.
Fig. 11.6.

Geological map of the Mansar–Mahuli area, central India.

Basin stratigraphy

The Sausar Group has a nonconformable relation to the Tirodi gneiss I. The stratigraphic succession of the Sausar Group, established by earlier workers, is given in Table 11.4. Detailed mapping in the Sausar belt has shown frequent changes in lithology and lithofacies in the cover rocks (Mohanty 1993) and has revealed new volcanosedimentary units and glacial deposits (Mohanty 2006). These observations have led to revision of the status of some of the lithological units mapped earlier as Chorbaoli and Bichua formations (Table 11.5; Mohanty 2006). The Sausar Group shows three phases of superposed deformation, and the effects of metamorphism of amphibolite facies syn- to post-tectonic with respect to the first deformation (Mohanty 1988; Mohanty & Mohanty 1996; Mohanty et al. 2000).

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Table 11.4.

Stratigraphic succession of the Sausar Group (after Narayanaswami et al. 1963)

View this table:
Table 11.5.

Stratigraphic succession of the Sausar Group, India

The Sitasaongi Formation occurs as a series of discontinuous lenses along the contact between the basement gneiss and the overlying Lohangi Formation. The Sitasaongi Formation is locally separated from the basement by a carbonate bed (east of Mansar) and a thin band of amphibolite (west of Mahuli). The amphibolite band preserves features that indicate a volcanogenic source of the unit (Mohanty 2006). The volcanosedimentary unit is well developed in the northern part of the Sausar belt (Pauni–Deolapar–Silari region; Fig. 11.5). This newly identified unit has the stratigraphic status of a formation (named the Sillari Formation). The Sillari Formation is overlain by a thin (10 m) clast-supported conglomerate, which comes directly over the basement near Mansar–Kandri mines and in the Mahuli area (Figs 11.6 & 11.7). This unit is classified as the Nayakund Formation. It contains abundant clasts of granite, quartzite and greenstones. The conglomerate is overlain by a 10 m-thick matrix supported conglomerate (diamictite) followed by thinly laminated metasiltstone. The diamictite and metasiltstones preserve evidence of a glacial origin. Similar diamictites have been mapped in the eastern, central and northern parts of the Sausar belt, indicating the widespread nature of the glaciogenic unit. Laminated pink to buff limestones and dolomites (Potgowari Formation) succeeding the metasiltstone unit represent a littoral to shallow-marine facies. The presence of drop stones and clusters of rock fragments in the basal part of the Potgowari Formation suggests its relation to the glaciogenic processes and its possible position as a cap carbonate. The Potgowari Formation is succeeded by the dominantly argillaceous Mansar Formation. This unit contains thin manganese-ore beds, which occur on an economically mineable scale at several places on the belt, extending for a distance of c. 200 km. The stratigraphic sections studied at three locations are shown in Figure 11.6

Fig. 11.7.
Fig. 11.7.

Stratigraphic succession of the studied area: (a) Mahuli area; (b) Mansar–Kandri National Highway; and (c) Mansar Mine area (east of Mansar). See Figure 11.6 for locations of sections.

Age limits of the basin-fill (Sausar Group)

The Sausar Group has a non-conformable relationship with an Archaean granite–gneiss complex (Tirodi gneiss I), and was deformed during the Satpura orogeny. Therefore, the Sausar Group is considered here to be later than 2432±5 Ma. The earliest deformation in the Sausar Group, represented by isoclinal folds with axial planar schistosity, was accompanied by the main phase of regional amphibolite–granulite facies metamorphism and the formation of gneisses (Mohanty 1988, 2010, 2012). These gneisses are stratigraphically placed under the Tirodi gneiss II. The EPMA monazite age of granulites in the southern part of the Tirodi gneiss ranges from 1958 to 2208 Ma (average 2086±16 Ma, Bhowmik et al. 2005). The thermal imprint on the Amgaon gneiss is reported to be at 2170±60 Ma (Rb–Sr age, Sarkar et al. 1981) and matches the Sm–Nd age of the Tirodi gneiss II (2106 Ma, Ahmad et al. 2009). The EPMA age of a monazite rim in felsic granulite associated with the first deformation of the east–west-trending Bhandara–Balaghat granulite (BBG) belt is 2040±17 Ma (Bhowmik et al. 2005). The second deformation and amphibolite–granulite facies metamorphism resulted in widespread resetting of metamorphic ages in all the rock units of the region (1618±8 Ma SHRIMP U–Pb zircon age of Tirodi gneiss, Bhowmik et al. 2011; 1525±70 Ma Rb–Sr whole-rock age of Tirodi gneiss, S. N. Sarkar et al. 1986; 1553±19, 1569±15 and 1577±89 Ma U–Pb zircon age of Sausar granulite, Ahmad et al. 2009; 1534±15 Ma U–Pb zircon age for metamorphic overprint on Tirodi gneiss, Ahmad et al. 2009; 1572±7, 1584±17 Ma SHRIMP U–Pb zircon age, Bhowmik et al. 2011; 1525±13 Ma spot chemical ages of monazite rims in BBG, Bhowmik et al. 2005; 1582±13, 1603±12 Ma monazite spot age, Bhandari et al. 2011). Several syn- to post-tectonic granites from the Chhotanagpur Gneiss Complex (eastern continuation of the Satpura Mountains) have yielded isochron ages from 1800 to 1500 Ma (1870±74 Ma isotope dilution–thermal ionization mass spectrometry (ID-TIMS) monazite ages of gneiss, Chatterjee et al. 2010; 1741±65 Ma age of granites associated with the first deformation, Mallik et al. 1992; 1624±5 U–Pb zircon upper intercept age of gneiss associated with second deformation, Sarkar et al. 1998; 1522±71 Ma age of granites associated with second deformation, Mazumdar 1996).

The flat-lying sedimentary rocks of the Vindhyan Supergroup to the north of the Satpura Mountains are believed to have been deposited at the time of uplift of the Satpura Mountains (Chakraborty & Bhattacharyya 1996). Tuffs comprising the lower part of the Vindhyan Supergroup have a U–Pb zircon age of 1631±5 Ma (Rasmussen et al. 2002; Ray et al. 2002). Therefore, the Satpura Mountain is believed to have been formed during three different phases of orogeny at c. 2100–1900, c. 1800–1700 and c. 1650–1500 Ma, together with associated basin opening and closing (Mohanty 2012).

Thus, in spite of the unavailability of radiometric ages, the Sausar Group is constrained to be a Palaeoproterozoic succession (2432±5 to 2170±60 Ma), deformed and metamorphosed at c. 2100–1900, c. 1800–1700 and c. 1600–1500 Ma.

Depositional model of the Sausar Group

The Sausar Group bears imprints of intense deformation, metamorphism of greenschist to upper amphibolite facies (locally reaching granulite facies) and several phases of migmatization. As a result, most of the sedimentological features have been obliterated. The isoclinal folds developed on the lithological layering have caused repetition of lithological units, thickening and thinning of layers in the hinge and limb areas of folds, and coalesced limbs in the cores of folds. Determination of the exact stratigraphic thickness is hindered by these deformation patterns. The aim of this chapter is to document glacial facies of the Sausar Group, and to discuss their palaeoenvironments and significance for palaeotectonic correlation.

Detailed studies of glaciogenic deposits, both modern and ancient, during the last five decades have led to the development of criteria for identification of the depositional environment and facies models of glacial deposits (Aalto 1971; Young 1976; Boulton & Deynoux 1981). In deformed and metamorphosed terrains, many features of glaciogenic origin are obliterated and some of the structural features (like fault striations) resemble glacial striations, hindering interpretation. However, clasts of size much larger than the thickness of stratification of the glacial sediments showing puncturing of layers are interpreted to be ‘drop stones’ transported by icebergs and deposited by melting of the icebergs. These ‘drop stones’ provide involvement of glaciogenic processes at the time of deposition. The presence of such ‘drop stones’ at several places in the Sausar belt has helped in developing the depositional model for the supracrustal block.

Petrography and mineralogy

The supposed glaciogenic unit (Nayakund Formation) consists of polymictic clast-supported conglomerate, polymictic matrix-supported conglomerate (diamictite), sandstone and argillites. The basal clast-supported conglomerate unit is interpreted as a meta-tillite, with erratics of varied lithology: gneiss, granite, volcanic rocks, quartzites and dolomite (Fig. 11.8a). It has very poor sorting with clasts up to 1 m in diameter, near the basement contact. A short distance above the contact, pebbles and cobbles dominate. The matrix is massive to poorly laminated. Boulders of granite indicate erosion of crystalline basement. The middle unit is a matrix-supported conglomerate (diamictite). The matrix material is poorly sorted, composed mainly of biotite, quartz, muscovite and minor amounts of orthoclase, albite and calcite. The mineral assemblage is typical of lower amphibolite facies metamorphism. Slightly rounded to angular and flat-iron-shaped pebbles are common in this unit (Fig. 11.8b). The overlying siltstone member has fine laminations and very thin meta-argillite (mudstone) layers. Alternating layers of quartzite and meta-argillite have a varve-like appearance. These units have angular fragments of quartzite that appear to be ‘drop stones’ puncturing the layering (Fig. 11.8c). Matrix-supported diamictite in this unit contains clumps of rock fragments (suggesting ice rafting) and fragment-free layers (Fig. 11.8d). Some pebbles of the siltstone member have long axes and lamination parallel to the layering of the enclosing beds. The siltstone member has drop stones of basic rocks in the Mahuli area. The glaciogenic unit is overlain by a pink calcitic/white dolomitic marble (Potgowari Formation). Near the basal part the carbonate unit is finely banded and includes pebbles of granite, quartzite and vein quartz. In some areas drop stones of vein quartz and quartzite and pea-sized ‘till pellets’ are common in the laminated silty carbonate (Fig. 11.8e, f).

Fig. 11.8.
Fig. 11.8.

(a) Clast-supported diamictite with clasts of different shape and size. Bullet-shaped clast is seen in the right central part. (b) Matrix-supported diamictite with a faceted boulder of gneiss. (c) Faceted boulders of quartzite in a matrix of quartz–mica schist, showing lamination and boulder across the lamination. (d) Matrix-supported diamictite showing clumps of ice-rafted clast and clast-free bands (lower). (e) Varve-like banding of silty-carbonate and pure carbonate laminae, with drop stones of vein–quartz and quartzite, and pea-sized ‘till pellets’. (f ) Punctured and splashed up laminae of silty carbonate near a lonestone of quartzite (near knife head), suggesting the lonestone to be drop stone.

Depositional processes

Based mainly on field observations, a facies model of sedimentation has been developed. The first part of the glaciogenic unit is interpreted as a true tillite. It consists of crudely stratified, clast-supported conglomerate, directly overlying the basement. The conglomerate layer is interpreted as having been deposited from a mudflow. The local nature of the basal unit suggests deposition directly from a glacier, in either a terrestrial or a subaqueous (shallow sea or lake) setting (Gravenor et al. 1984; Deynoux 1985; Young & Gostin 1988). Therefore, it is interpreted as lodgement tillite or undermelt diamictite (Link & Gostin 1981). The second glaciogenic unit, a diamictite, with fine laminations of sandstone and mudstone, has some of the characteristics of varved laminites. The occurrence of internal lamination, graded bedding, drop stones and rip-up clasts in the sandstone facies attests to abundant sediment supply, ice-rafting and current activity. These characteristics are typical of glaciomarine or glaciolacustrine environments. The discontinuous nature of this unit might reflect shallow water depth or deposition in separate lakes (?). The presence of drop stones suggests that material dropped from a floating shelf and iceberg zones of a glacier played a part in deposition. Rip-up structures in finely laminated siltstone suggest glacial pick-up and redeposition downslope, or slumping. Varve-like sediments could have originated by annual variations in meltwater production. The diamictite is followed by a ‘cap carbonate’ and mudstones. Fine lamination in the overlying carbonate and mudstone units and the absence of coarse debris, is interpreted as resulting from a post-glacial eustatic sea-level rise. Such transgressive sequences starved of coarse materials are common in many glaciated areas (Young 1992; Brookfield 1994). The persistent thin (millimetre-scale), planar-laminated character of the limestone indicates a dominantly low-energy depositional setting. A shallow, well-lit, predominantly quiet-water, subtidal setting is suggested. The presence of pebbles of different rocks and drop stones in the basal part of this unit indicates that floating icebergs were present at the time of deposition of the basal part. The carbonate unit has thin layers of manganese towards the upper part. The overlying mica schist unit has manganese beds. The presence of manganese in economically significant quantities in such a setting is of interest.

Regional stratigraphic/tectonic implications

Study of lithological and tectonic evolution of ancient glacial deposits and associated sediments has led to successful correlation of different continental blocks and interpretation of their palaeotectonic evolution. Relevant in this context is the study of Precambrian glacial deposits and their importance in reconstruction of continental assemblages during Precambrian time (Eyles et al. 1983; Ojakangas 1988; Young 1988; Eyles 1993; Cheney 1996; Aspler & Chiarenzelli 1998, Crowell 1999; Hoffman & Li 2009). In contrast to the Neoproterozoic glaciations, which were much more extensive, the Palaeoproterozoic glaciations are reported from only a few localities. Cratonic blocks with Palaeoproterozoic evolutionary history have been reported from all of the continents. The base of the succession is marked by a Palaeoproterozoic glaciation event in some parts of North America (Casshyap 1969; Young & Nesbitt 1985), Europe (Marmo & Ojakangas 1984; Strand & Laajoki 1993) and South Africa (Eriksson et al. 1995; Evans et al. 1997). Similarities in the evolution of Palaeoproterozoic terrains of North America, Europe, Africa and Australia have been highlighted in tectonic models of Neoarchaean–Palaeoproterozoic supercontinents (Cheney 1996; Aspler & Chiarenzelli 1998). Palaeoproterozoic sequences of North America, Europe, Western Australia and South Africa have glaciogenic rocks (Young 1973, 1976; Kirschvink et al. 2000; Ojakangas et al. 2001; Bekker et al. 2001; Young 2004). The Archaean craton forming the basement for the supracrustal sedimentary belts of Africa and Western Australia has TTG gneisses and greenstone–granite complexes similar to those of the Bastar Craton. The Palaeoproterozoic Turee Creek Group of Western Australia contains siliciclastic and glacial deposits, underlain by BIF-bearing rocks (Lindsay & Brasier 2002). The Lower Pretoria Group of the Transvaal Supergroup, South Africa, has two glaciogenic units (Boshoek Formation and the Duitschland Formation) and has associated BIF-bearing rocks and manganese-ore deposits (Frauenstein et al. 2009). The Palaeoproterozoic Huronian Supergroup of Canada contains three glacial formations: Ramsay Lake, Bruce and Gowganda Formation (Bekker et al. 2005). The occurrence of glaciogenic rocks and associated manganese-ore deposits in the Sausar Group could be used as a stratigraphic tool for understanding the relationship between all of these cratonic blocks.

Summary of the basin evolution history

The volcanosedimentary rocks constituting the Dongargarh Supergroup and associated granite plutons (Dongargarh granite and Malanjkhand granite) have been studied extensively by different groups of workers. On the basis of geochemical patterns, two tectonic models have been proposed for the development of these rock units: continental rifting and island-arc environment. On the other hand, the sedimentological features indicate a stable marine platform condition for the Dongargarh Supergroup. When analysed in the regional context, it is observed that the basin development followed a regional orogenic event with associated granulite facies metamorphism. Therefore, it is proposed that, after the orogeny with extremely high pressure/temperature conditions, the orogenic belt was subjected to collapse and thermal subsidence, leading to basin development. Such a model can explain the generation of plutons during the late-stage collapse of the orogen and the development of a rift environment at the margin of the orogenic belt.

Palaeoproterozoic glacial deposits in the Sausar Group of Central India were reported by Mohanty et al. (2005) and Mohanty (2006). The basal unit (Nayakund Formation) of the Sausar Group shows evidence of glaciogenic sedimentation in terrestrial to proximal glaciomarine or glaciolacustrine environments. Post-glacial deposition of carbonates (Mohanty et al. 2015) of the Potgowari Formation (a possible cap carbonate) was followed by manganese-bearing metasediments (Mansar Formation). Geochronological data on the Sausar Group are extremely limited. The evolution of the basin took place by rifting with basic volcanism (?) and deposition of carbonates. This was followed by glaciation with deposition in fault-controlled troughs, and post-glacial transgression/deposition of dolomites, fine clastics and manganese formation. The closure of the Sausar basin possibly took place at c. 2100 Ma, during the Satpura orogeny I. The evolution of the Dongargarh Supergroup and its relationship with the Sausar Group require more detailed investigations. The spatio-temporal evolutions of the Bastar Craton (Fig. 11.4) determined from the available data are summarized in Table 11.2. More detailed palaeomagnetic, geochronological, geophysical and tectonosedimentary analysis might help in resolving some of the outstanding problems.

Acknowledgments

The original fieldwork upon which this study is based was carried out some time ago, in 1990–1992. A. Mohanty, P. Nayak, A. K. Prasad, A. Sahu and MSc students of 1996, 1999 and 2000 at the Indian School of Mines participated in mapping of the eastern part of area. Funds for A. Mohanty and A. Sahu were received from the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, India, and S. Mohanty benefited from the funds of the University Grants Commission (Special Assistance Programme) and the Department of Science and Technology, India. The author thanks R. Mazumder and P. Eriksson for the invitation to contribute this chapter. Constructive suggestions received from A. J. van Loon and an anonymous reviewer improved the content of the manuscript.

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